Practice Positive Discipline

The evidence on discipline continues to point to the healthiest child development when parents: adopt an authoritative parenting style; engage in monitoring; are sensitive, involved, responsive and warm; and avoid harsh punishment, control and indulgence.

Cross-cultural evidence finds relationships between harsh punishment, control and disruptive behavior. Other evidence finds a relationship between harsh punishment and permissive discipline. Parents who use power with their children might promote relationships characterized by their child's resentful opposition, depending on early attachment quality. Two papers find longer-term relationships that link discipline with adolescent behaviors and emerging adult adjustment. Evidence indicates that discipline style not only matters, but the impacts carry into later life.

 

 

Early Attachment Organization Moderates the Parent-Child Mutually Coercive Pathway to Children's Antisocial Conduct

Kochanska, G., Barry, R. A., Stellern, S. A., & O’Bleness, J. J. (2009). Early attachment organization moderates the parent-child mutually coercive pathway to children’s antisocial conduct. Child Development, 80(4), 1288-1300.

Insecurely attached children showed more resentful opposition toward their mothers than did those with secure attachments.

[popup title="Sample, Hypothesis, Variables Measured, Study Design" format= "Default hover" text='

Sample

  • N: 101
  • Subject Ages: 7 months at recruit, followed until 67 months
  • Location: United States, Iowa
  • SES: Broad range of income and education
  • Eligibility: Two-parent families with normally developing children
  • Additional: 90% of mothers were white, 84% of fathers were white

Hypotheses

  1. The child’s resentful opposition serves as a mechanism or mediator that accounts for links between parental power assertion and child future antisocial behavior.
  2. The early history of the parent-child relationship, reflected in the child’s attachment organization, moderates this mediational chain. 

Variables Measured, Instruments Used

  • Children’s attachment security at 15 months - Strange Situation with both mothers and fathers
  • Mother’s and father’s power assertion in discipline contexts - 25 and 38 months coded contexts, in the lab during naturalist situations
  • Children’s resentful opposition at 52 months -
    • children’s defiance: coded contexts in the lab during Do and Don’t contexts
    • children’s negative emotional tone in interactions with parents: negative affect was coded during naturalistic observations
    • children’s unresponsiveness to parents: obtained by reversing the scores of the child responsiveness to parents coded during naturalistic observations
    • composite of children’s resentful opposition: the three scores were intercorrelated, therefore standardizing and aggregating them into one score for children and mothers and one score for children and fathers
  • Children’s antisocial disruptive behavior problems at 67 months -
    • the Child Symptom Inventory
    • the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits
    • the Macarthur Health Behavior Questionnaire
    • the Composite of antisocial and disruptive behavior

Design—Longitudinal

']

Findings

  1. For maternal and paternal use of power at 25 to 38 months, there was no effect of security.
  2. For children’s resentful opposition to mothers at 52 months, early security had a significant effect. Children who had been more insecure showed more resentful opposition than those who had been secure.
  3. For children’s resentful opposition to fathers at 52 months, there was no significant effect of early security.
  4. For parental ratings of children’s antisocial, disruptive behavior problems at 67 months, there were no effects of early security for either parent.
  5. The effect of parental power assertion with mothers and fathers on child future resentful opposition to the mother was significant for insecurely attached children, but not for secure children.

Limitations

  • The participants were low-risk families where power assertion was generally low.
  • Typical strategies coded as power assertive included mildly forceful tactics that rarely, if ever, escalated to harsh physical punishment or threats.
  • Children’s antisocial problems were also generally infrequent.
  • The study was non-experimental, limiting the interpretations of the direction of the results.

From Parent to Child to Parent…: Paths In and Out of Problem Behavior

Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. (2012). From parent to child to parent…: Paths in and out of problem behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(4), 1-15.

Maternal sensitivity, parental harshness, and productive activity affected child behavior, but child behavior problems influenced parenting choices more so than vice versa, from middle childhood onward.

[popup title="Sample, Hypothesis, Variables Measured, Study Design" format= "Default hover" text='

Sample

  • N: 956 families
  • Subject Ages: 15 years
  • Location: 10 geographically separated sites from the NICHD data set
  • SES: Higher mean household income ($39,550 versus $33,570), almost 22% of families had an income-to-needs ratio of less than 2.0
  • Eligibility: All cases with a valid measure at age 15
  • Additional:
    • 81.4% Caucasian, 12% African American
    • 49.9% boys
    • Participant families were:
      • Less likely to be of minority status (18.6% versus 21.8%)
      • More likely to consist of the biological mother living with her husband (79.1% versus 71.1%)
      • Parents were more likely to have attended college (72.1% versus 60.9%)

Hypotheses

  1. Reciprocal patterns of relations will emerge between externalizing behavior and the three aspects of parenting observed from infancy through adolescence, but the impact of parenting processes on externalizing behavior will diminish as children age.
  2. Cumulative effect with externalizing behavior will become increasingly stable.
  3. Maternal sensitivity during early and middle childhood will continue to exert an influence on externalizing behavior at age 15 via self-control, an alternative to the idea of a simple cumulative effect.
  4. Self-control will serve to mediate relations between parenting and externalizing problems at age 15.
  5. Monitoring at age 15 will show a negative relation to harshness at age 11 and externalizing at age 15.
  6. Higher levels of productive activity at home at age 11 will show a negative relation to externalizing behavior via its connection with monitoring, as it reflects higher levels of trust and communication between parent and child.

Variables Measured, Instruments Used

All assessments were taken at multiple age points to capture cumulative experience during particular developmental periods:

  • Opportunity for productive activity - the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment Inventory (Caldwell and Bradley, 1984) at 15 months, 36 months, third grade and fifth grade
  • Parental harshness - the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment Inventory (Caldwell & Bradley, 1984) items that tap expressions of anger, annoyance, physical punishment and intrusiveness to measure parental harshness
  • Maternal sensitivity - coded videos of 15-minute semi-structured interactions in which the mother and child played in two or three age-appropriate activities
  • Monitoring - mother report, 11-item questionnaire
  • Self-control - the Social Skills Rating Scale (SSRS; Gresham & Elliot, 1990), Self-control subscale
  • Externalizing behavior - the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach, 1992) mother and caregiver-teacher report form of the CBCL (Achenbach, 1997)

Design—Longitudinal

']

Findings

  1. Maternal sensitivity, parental harshness and productive activity are related to externalizing problems, but patterns of relations change from early childhood to middle childhood to adolescence with evidence suggesting that externalizing behavior influences parenting more than the reverse from middle childhood onward.
  2. Self-control measured during early adolescence partially mediated relations between maternal sensitivity and adolescent-reported externalizing behavior.
  3. Parental monitoring during adolescence was also related to externalizing behavior at age 15. Monitoring partially mediated the relation between externalizing behavior in early adolescence and externalizing at age 15.

Limitations

  • Few instances of harshness at the level of maltreatment and a limited measure of harshness
  • About 30% attrition over the 15-year study
  • Relatively small proportion of minority and high-risk families
  • Missing data on measures, particularly teacher reports of externalizing behavior during early childhood
  • Not all of the key variables were equally stable. Most notable is the modest stability in parental harshness.

Inhibitory Control and Harsh Discipline as Predictors of Externalizing Problems in Young Children: A Comparative Study of US, Chinese, and Japanese Preschoolers

Olson, S. L., Tardif, T. Z., Miller, A., Felt, B., Grabell, A. S., Kessler, D., ... & Hirabayashi, H. (2011). Inhibitory Control and Harsh Discipline as Predictors of Externalizing Problems in Young Children: A Comparative Study of US, Chinese, and Japanese Preschoolers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(8), 1163-1175.

Harsh discipline contributed to child behavior problems.

[popup title="Sample, Hypothesis, Variables Measured, Study Design" format= "Default hover" text='

Sample

  • N: 120
  • Subject Ages: 4 years
  • Location: United States; China; Japan
  • SES: Various
  • Eligibility: Full-time preschools at both university and community samples in each location
  • Additional:
    • Beijing, China
      • Only two of the children (a pair of twins) were reported to have siblings
      • Parental education ranged from middle school to   graduate-level training for both mothers and fathers
    • U.S. sample was collected in and around Ann Arbor, Michigan
      • Over half had one or more siblings
      • Parental education ranged from high school to graduate-level training for both mothers and fathers
    • Tokyo, Japan
      • Over half of the Japanese children had at least one sibling and 11 of the children had two siblings
      • Most parents reported being married
      • Parental education ranged from middle school to graduate-level training for both mothers and fathers
    • Some demographic characteristics differed significantly between countries
      • Chinese parents were slightly younger than those in Japan
      • Maternal education was significantly greater in the United States than in Japan or China
      • There were no significant cross-national differences in paternal education
      • Relatively few Japanese mothers were employed
      • U.S. parents reported significantly higher levels of divorce or separation than those in the other two countries

Hypotheses

  1. Low levels of child inhibitory control would be associated with elevated levels of child externalizing problems in all three cultures.
  2. Indices of parental harsh physical and emotional discipline would be associated with elevated externalizing scores in U.S. preschoolers, and it would be determined whether this association would generalize to Chinese and Japanese preschoolers.
  3. The cross-cultural validity of integrative models would determine whether associations between parenting risk, child self-regulation difficulties and child externalizing combined in ways that reflected additive, interactional or mediational mechanisms.
  4. Relationships between children’s inhibitory control capabilities and early externalizing problems would be moderated by child gender within each country.

Variables Measured, Instruments Used

  • Child inhibitory control in the laboratory - composite of three Stroop-like switching tasks commonly used with  preschoolers: the Grass/Snow Task, Luria’s Hand Game and the Day/Night Stroop Task
  • Maternal rating of inhibitory control - abbreviated version of Rothbart’s Child Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ; Ahadi, et al., 1993)
  • Nonverbal intelligence - the Block Design subscale of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, revised (WPPSI-R; Wechsler, 1989)
  • Child externalizing problems - the Child Behavior Checklist/1.5-5
  • Parenting behavior - Socialization of Moral Affect questionnaire-Preschool Parent (SOMA-PP; Denham, et al., 1997)

Design—Correlational, cross-cultural

']

Findings

  1. Both child inhibitory control and maternal harsh discipline made significant contributions to child externalizing problems in all three countries.
  2. Across countries, child inhibitory control and maternal harsh discipline made significant independent contributions to early externalizing problems, suggesting an additive model of association.
  3. Our findings supported the cross-cultural generalizability of child inhibitory control and parental harsh punishment as key contributors to disruptive behavior in young children.

Limitations

  • Participants primarily were drawn from two-parent, middle-class families; thus, the findings may not generalize to children in other family constellations or families experiencing severe economic hardship.
  • Samples were drawn from typically developing preschoolers, limiting generalizability to clinically referred populations of young children.
  • The mediation model was based on theoretical evidence that supported the direction of effects from parenting behavior to child self-regulation. However, impulsive, disruptive child behavior often elicits upper limit controls and negative affect from parents (Sameroff, 2009). Empirical studies have shown that the early development of disruptive behavior reflects reciprocal relations between child and parent behaviors (e.g., Combs-Ronto, et al., 2009; Scaramella & Leve, 2004). Thus, the findings should not be used to draw causal inferences concerning the directionality of parent-child influences.
  • Maternal report: Although laboratory measures of child inhibitory control were included, parenting behaviors and child externalizing problems were evaluated using maternal report. Incorporating other sources of information may prevent possible informant bias as well as provide a more detailed and comprehensive understanding of mothers’ early contributions to children’s disruptive behavior. Furthermore, investigating fathers’ roles in these relations may lead to a richer pattern of findings (e.g., see Chang, et al., 2003).
  • Over 50 different risk factors have been related to the development of child externalizing problems (Dodge & Pettit, 2003).

Linking Maternal Warmth and Responsiveness to Children's Self-Regulation

von Suchodoletz, A., Trommsdorff, G., & Heikamp, T. (2011). Linking Maternal Warmth and Responsiveness to Children's Self-regulation. Social Development, 20(3), 486-503.

While maternal warmth was predictive of better behavior regulation in the child overall, maternal responsiveness to child distress was specifically related to the child’s internalization of rules of conduct.

[popup title="Sample, Hypothesis, Variables Measured, Study Design" format= "Default hover" text='

Sample

  • N: 102
  • Subject Ages: Kindergarten children
  • Location: Germany, Konstanz
  • SES: Middle class
  • Eligibility: Parents of public kindergarten children who agreed to participate
  • Additional:
    • All families were of a European cultural background
    • 80% of the children lived in a two-parent household
    • All mothers had at least 12 years of schooling

Hypotheses

  1. Maternal warmth will be positively related to the child’s behavioral regulation.
  2. Maternal responsiveness to distress would correlate positively with the child’s internalization of rules of conduct.
  3. Children’s gender and effortful control would interact with parenting behavior in predicting self-regulation skills.

Variables Measured, Instruments Used

  • Maternal warmth - the Child Rearing Practices Report-Q Sort
  • Maternal responsiveness to distress - the Coping with Children’s Negative Emotions Scale
  • Behavior regulation - the Snack Delay task of the Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery-Preschool Version
  • Internalization of rules of conduct - Maternal Reports of Conscience Development
  • Effortful control - the Children’s Behavior Questionnaire

Design—Cross-sectional

']

Findings

  1. Maternal warmth was a significant predictor of higher levels of behavior regulation independent of any contribution of maternal responsiveness to distress.
  2. Neither of the child variables (gender and effortful control) nor the mothers' level of education reached levels of significance in predicting the child’s behavior regulation.
  3. Maternal responsiveness and children’s internalization of rules of conduct were significantly and positively associated, whereas maternal warmth was not a predictor. Girls showed higher levels of internalization than boys.
  4. Mother’s level of education did not reach significance for internalization of rules of conduct.

Limitations

  • Mothers in this study tended to show higher levels of warmth than in other studies, due to sample characteristics.
  • Reliance on self-reports
  • Cross-sectional data only
  • Not socioeconomically diverse

Parenting and Late Adolescent Emotional Adjustment: Mediating Effects of Discipline and Gender

McKinney, C., Milone, M. C., & Renk, K. (2011). Parenting and late adolescent emotional adjustment: Mediating effects of discipline and gender. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 42(4), 463-481.

Harsh discipline strategies were predictive of poor emotional adjustment in emerging adults, while positive discipline predicted healthy adjustment.

[popup title="Sample, Hypothesis, Variables Measured, Study Design" format= "Default hover" text='

Sample

  • N: 526 - 163 males and 363 females
  • Subject Ages: Mean 19.22 years
  • Location: Not available
  • SES: 63% reported a total parental income between $30,000 and $99,999, 26.4% reported total parental income in excess of $100,000
  • Eligibility: Individuals aged within the developmental time frame of emerging adulthood
  • Additional:
    • Participants were enrolled in an introductory psychology course
    • 76.2% Caucasion, 9.7% Hispanic, 6.5% African American, 1.9% Asian, 3.6% other ethnic background

Hypotheses

  1. Perceived authoritative parenting will be related inversely with perceived harshness of discipline, whereas perceived authoritarian parenting will be related directly with perceived harshness of discipline.
  2. Perceived authoritative parenting will be related inversely to poor emotional adjustment in emerging adults, and perceived authoritarian parenting and perceived harshness of discipline will be related directly to poor emotional adjustment in emerging adults.
  3. Perceived discipline strategies will mediate the effect of perceived parenting styles and emerging adult emotional adjustment. That is, perceived parenting styles will share a significant relationship with emerging adult emotional adjustment independently, but this effect will be eliminated when examined in the context of perceived discipline strategies.

Variables Measured, Instruments Used

  • Parenting style -
    • items from the care and overprotection scale of the Parental Bonding Instrument
    • three subscales from the Parental Authority Questionnaire
  • Discipline strategy - Conflict Tactics Scale, Parent-Child version
  • Emotional adjustment -
    • the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory
    • the Beck Depression Inventory
    • the Manifest Anxiety Scale

Design—Correlational

']

Finding

  1. Perceived discipline strategies remain a significant predictor of emerging adults’ emotional adjustment across all models, whereas perceived parenting styles remain a significant predictor for females only.

Limitations

  • Generalizability of the findings: Over 3/4 of participants were Caucasian.
  • Very few participants reported backgrounds of low socioeconomic status.
  • Sole reliance on the self-report of emerging adult participants
  • Information regarding participant living status (e.g., at home, on campus, etc.) and amount of contact with parents was not collected.
  • Correlational in nature: This study is unable to determine causation.
  • Many other factors not studied here may influence emerging adults’ emotional adjustment as well.

Parenting and Trajectories of Children's Maladaptive Behaviors: A 12-year Prospective Community Study

Luyckx, K., Tildesley, E. A., Soenens, B., Andrews, J. A., Hampson, S. E., Peterson, M., & Duriez, B. (2011). Parenting and trajectories of children's maladaptive behaviors: A 12-year prospective community study. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40(3), 468-478.

Authoritative parenting—high on positive parenting and monitoring but low on inconsistent discipline—had the best long-term outcomes of all parenting styles.

[popup title="Sample, Hypothesis, Variables Measured, Study Design" format= "Default hover" text='

Sample

  • N: 1,049
  • Subject Ages: Grades 1-5 to Grades 6-12
  • SES: Working-class community
  • Eligibility: Children in the age range at recruitment
  • Location: United States, Oregon
  • Additional:
    • 86% Caucasian, 7% Hispanic, 1% Asian American, 6% mixed race/other
    • 7% of mothers and 11% of fathers had high school diploma, 71% of mothers and 66% of fathers had postsecondary education

Hypotheses

  1. Four parenting classes were expected: Authoritative (high on positive parenting (PP)/monitoring and low on inconsistent discipline (ID)); Indulgent (high on PP and ID; low on monitoring); Authoritarian (high on monitoring; low on PP and ID); and Uninvolved (high on ID; low on PP/monitoring).
  2. Children in the authoritative class will have the lowest levels of internalizing symptoms, followed by children raised by parents in the indulgent and authoritarian classes. Uninvolved parenting would result in high internalizing symptoms and possible steep increases over time.
  3. Substance abuse and antisocial behavior will be low for all, with increases in children with parents in the indulgent and uninvolved classes.

Variables Measured, Instruments Used

  • Parent behavior - the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire with three subscales: monitoring/supervision, inconsistent discipline and positive parenting
  • Child cigarette and alcohol use - yearly questionnaire in grades 6-12
  • Child antisocial behavior and internalizing symptoms - the Child Behavior Checklist, abbreviated version

Design—Longitudinal

']

Findings

  1. Four parenting classes were defined as hypothesized.
  2. Decreases in monitoring occurred for authoritarian and authoritative parents, with steeper decreases for the authoritarian than authoritative. The indulgent classes also showed a steep decrease in monitoring as might be expected.
  3. These parenting styles were differentially related to changes in parent- and child-reported measures of children’s alcohol and cigarette use, antisocial behavior and internalizing symptoms, with the authoritative parenting class being related to the most optimal long-term development.
  4. Children of authoritative parents had better outcomes across the board, as is consistent with the literature.
  5. Some of the disadvantages of non-authoritative parenting accumulated over time.
  6. Children were twice as likely to have chemical/tobacco use if parents were uninvolved.
  7. Boys of uninvolved parents were at greater risk for antisocial behavior.
  8. There was greater prevalence of internalizing symptoms for children of authoritarian parents over time.

Limitations

  • Sample is almost exclusively white.
  • Parents and children did not report on sample variables, reducing reliability.
  • The single-item quality of the child-reported measurements constitutes a weakness.

The Relation of Harsh and Permissive Discipline with Child Disruptive Behaviors: Does Child Gender Make a Difference in an At-Risk Sample?

Parent, J., Forehand, R., Merchant, M. J., Edwards, M. C., Conners-Burrow, N. A., Long, N., & Jones, D. J. (2011). The Relation of Harsh and Permissive Discipline with Child Disruptive Behaviors: Does Child Gender Make a Difference in an At-Risk Sample?. Journal of Family Violence, 26(7), 527-533.

Permissive parenting intensified boys’ behavioral problems, and harsh discipline was related to child behavioral problems regardless of gender, but parent education lessened child behavioral problems, particularly for girls.

[popup title="Sample, Hypothesis, Variables Measured, Study Design" format= "Default hover" text='

Sample

  • N: 160
  • Subject Ages: Parents of children ages 3 to 6 years
  • Location: United States, Vermont and Arkansas
  • SES: Not available
  • Eligibility: Not available
  • Additional:
    • 6.5% parents had less than high school education, 17.4% had a high school diploma, 76.1% had some college education
    • Recruited through Head Start

Hypotheses

  1. Parents’ use of harsh discipline will be positively correlated with both boys’ and girls’ disruptive behavior.
  2. Permissive discipline will be related to boys’ disruptive behavior.
  3. Higher levels of both harsh and permissive discipline will be positively correlated with higher levels of disruptive behavior.

Variables Measured, Instruments Used

  • Demographic questionnaire
  • Dysfunctional discipline practices when faced with problem situations - two subscales from the Parenting Scale
  • Child disruptive behaviors - the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory

Design—Cross-sectional

']

Findings

  1. Higher levels of permissive discipline were related to higher levels of harsh punishment.
  2. Harsh discipline was significantly correlated with intensity of disruptive behavior in boys and girls, so that harsh discipline was related to more intense disruptive behavior.
  3. Permissive parenting was significantly correlated with intensity of disruptive behavior in boys but not girls.
  4. For boys, higher levels of permissive parenting were related to more intensive disruptive behaviors.
  5. For girls, higher levels of parental education were related to less intense disruptive behaviors.
  6. For boys, child age was significantly related to intensity of disruptive behavior.

Limitations

  • Data are cross-sectional, limiting conclusions about causality.
  • Focus was on two ineffective discipline strategies. Many important strategies parents use were not examined.
  • All of the data was based on parent reports.

Practice Positive Discipline Additional References

Alink, L. R., Mesman, J., Van Zeijl, J., Stolk, M. N., Juffer, F., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., ... & Koot, H. M. (2009). Maternal sensitivity moderates the relation between negative discipline and aggression in early childhood. Social Development, 18(1), 99-120.
Bakker, M. P., Ormel, J., Verhulst, F. C., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2011). Adolescent family adversity and mental health problems: the role of adaptive self-regulation capacities. The TRAILS study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(3), 341-350.
Bayer, J. K., Ukoumunne, O. C., Mathers, M., Wake, M., Abdi, N., & Hiscock, H. (2012). Development of children’s internalising and externalising problems from infancy to five years of age. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 46(7), 659-668.
Belsky, J., & Beaver, K. M. (2011). Cumulative-genetic plasticity, parenting and adolescent self-regulation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(5), 619-626.
Causadias, J. M., Salvatore, J. E., & Sroufe, L. A. (2012). Early patterns of self-regulation as risk and promotive factors in development: A longitudinal study from childhood to adulthood in a high-risk sample. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 36(4), 293.
Doan, S. N., Fuller-Rowell, T. E., & Evans, G. W. (2012). Cumulative risk and adolescent's internalizing and externalizing problems: The mediating roles of maternal responsiveness and self-regulation.
Fearon, R. P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Van IJzendoorn, M. H., Lapsley, A. M., & Roisman, G. I. (2010). The Significance of Insecure Attachment and Disorganization in the Development of Children’s Externalizing Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Study. Child Development, 81(2), 435-456.
Flynn, M., & Rudolph, K. D. (2012). The trade-offs of emotional reactivity for youths' social information processing in the context of maternal depression. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 6.
Forehand, R. L., Parent, J., Linnea, K., Merchant, M. J., Long, N., & Jones, D. J. (2011). Why Do Parents Seek Help When Their Children’s Behavior Is Within Normative Levels?. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33(4), 438-445.
Frankel, L. A., Hughes, S. O., O'Connor, T. M., Power, T. G., Fisher, J. O., & Hazen, N. L. (2012). Parental influences on Children's self-regulation of energy intake: insights from developmental literature on emotion regulation. Journal of Obesity, 2012.
Gaviţa, O. A., David, D., Bujoreanu, S., Tiba, A., & Ionuţiu, D. R. (2012). The Efficacy of a Short Cognitive-Behavioral Parent Program in the Treatment of Externalizing Behavior Disorders in Romanian Foster Care Children: Building Parental Emotion-Regulation through Unconditional Self-and Child-Acceptance Strategies. Children and Youth Services Review.
Gerstein, E. D., y Arbona, A. P., Crnic, K. A., Ryu, E., Baker, B. L., & Blacher, J. (2011). Developmental risk and young children’s regulatory strategies: predicting behavior problems at age five. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(3), 351-364.
Granic, I., & Patterson, G. R. (2006). Toward a comprehensive model of antisocial development: a dynamic systems approach. Psychological Review, 113(1), 101.
Grusec, J. E. (2011). Socialization processes in the family: Social and emotional development. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 243-269.
Hoffman, C., Crnic, K. A., & Baker, J. K. (2006). Maternal depression and parenting: Implications for children's emergent emotion regulation and behavioral functioning. Parenting: Science and Practice, 6(4), 271-295.
Joosen, K. J., Mesman, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2012). Maternal sensitivity to infants in various settings predicts harsh discipline in toddlerhood. Attachment & Human Development, 14(2), 101-117.
Kam, C. M., Greenberg, M. T., Bierman, K. L., Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A., Foster, M. E., ... & Pinderhughes, E. E. (2011). Maternal depressive symptoms and child social preference during the early school years: Mediation by maternal warmth and child emotion regulation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(3), 365-377.
Karazsia, B. T., & Wildman, B. G. (2009). The mediating effects of parenting behaviors on maternal affect and reports of children’s behavior. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18(3), 342-349.
Kim, S., Nordling, J. K., Yoon, J. E., Boldt, L. J., & Kochanska, G. (2013). Effortful Control in “Hot” and “Cool” Tasks Differentially Predicts Children’s Behavior Problems and Academic Performance. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(1), 43-56.
King, K. M., Lengua, L. J., & Monahan, K. C. (2013). Individual differences in the development of self-regulation during pre-adolescence: connections to context and adjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(1), 57-69.
Kochanska, G., & Kim, S. (2013). Early Attachment Organization With Both Parents and Future Behavior Problems: From Infancy to Middle Childhood. Child Development, 84(1), 283-296.
La Valley, A. G., & Guerrero, L. K. (2012). Perceptions of Conflict Behavior and Relational Satisfaction in Adult Parent–Child Relationships A Dyadic Analysis From an Attachment Perspective. Communication Research, 39(1), 48-78.
Lansford, J. E., Malone, P. S., Dodge, K. A., Chang, L., Chaudhary, N., Tapanya, S., ... & Deater-Deckard, K. (2010). Children’s perceptions of maternal hostility as a mediator of the link between discipline and children’s adjustment in four countries. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 34(5), 452-461.
Lansford, J. E., Wager, L. B., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2012). Parental reasoning, denying privileges, yelling, and spanking: Ethnic differences and associations with child externalizing behavior. Parenting, 12(1), 42-56.
Liebal, K., Reddy, V., Hicks, K., Jonnalagadda, S., & Chintalapuri, B. (2011). Socialization goals and parental directives in infancy: the theory and the practice. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 10(1), 113-131.
Marbell, K. N., & Grolnick, W. S. (2013). Correlates of parental control and autonomy support in an interdependent culture: A look at Ghana. Motivation and Emotion, 1-14.
McCoy, D. C., & Raver, C. C. (2011). Caregiver Emotional Expressiveness, Child Emotion Regulation, and Child Behavior Problems among Head Start Families. Social Development, 20(4), 741-761.
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Morris, M. D., Steinberg, L., Aucoin, K. J., & Keyes, A. W. (2011). The Influence of Mother-Child Emotion Regulation Strategies on Children's Expression of Anger and Sadness. Developmental Psychology, 47(1), 213-225.
Pace, U., & Zappulla, C. (2011). Problem behaviors in adolescence: the opposite role played by insecure attachment and commitment strength. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(6), 854-862.
Padilla-Walker, L. M., Carlo, G., Christensen, K. J., & Yorgason, J. B. (2012). Bidirectional Relations Between Authoritative Parenting and Adolescents’ Prosocial Behaviors. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(3), 400-408.
Pasalich, D. S., Dadds, M. R., Hawes, D. J., & Brennan, J. (2012). Attachment and callous-unemotional traits in children with early-onset conduct problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(8), 838-845.
Pasco Fearon, R. M., & Belsky, J. (2011). Infant-mother attachment and the growth of externalizing problems across the primary-school years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(7), 782-791.
Patrick, R. B., & Gibbs, J. C. (2012). Inductive discipline, parental expression of disappointed expectations, and moral identity in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(8), 973-983.
Patterson, G. R., Forgatch, M. S., Yoerger, K. L., & Stoolmiller, M. (1998). Variables that initiate and maintain an early-onset trajectory for juvenile offending. Development and Psychopathology, 10(3), 531-547.
Reeve, J., & Tseng, C. M. (2011). Cortisol reactivity to a teacher’s motivating style: the biology of being controlled versus supporting autonomy. Motivation and Emotion, 35(1), 63-74.
Repetti, R. L., Robles, T. F., Reynolds, B. M., & Sears, M. S. (2012). A naturalistic approach to the study of parenting. Parenting, 12(2-3), 165-174.
Romer, D., Betancourt, L. M., Brodsky, N. L., Giannetta, J. M., Yang, W., & Hurt, H. (2011). Does adolescent risk taking imply weak executive function? A prospective study of relations between working memory performance, impulsivity, and risk taking in early adolescence. Developmental Science, 14(5), 1119-1133.
Roskam, I., Meunier, J. C., Stievenart, M., & Noël, M. P. (2013). When there seem to be no predetermining factors: Early child and proximal family risk predicting externalizing behavior in young children incurring no distal family risk. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(1), 627-639.
Roth, G., & Assor, A. (2012). Guy Roth, Avi Assor. Journal of Adolescence, 35(4), 799-808.
Rothbart, M. K., Sheese, B. E., Rueda, M. R., & Posner, M. I. (2011). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation in early life. Emotion Review, 3(2), 207-213.
Schueler, C. M., & Prinz, R. J. (2012). The Role of Caregiver Contingent Responsiveness in Promoting Compliance in Young Children. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 1-12.
Silverstein, M., Gans, D., Lowenstein, A., Giarrusso, R., & Bengtson, V. L. (2010). Older parent-child relationships in six developed nations: Comparisons at the intersection of affection and conflict. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(4), 1006-1021.
Tharner, A., Luijk, M. P., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Jaddoe, V. W., Hofman, A., ... & Tiemeier, H. (2012). Infant Attachment, Parenting Stress, and Child Emotional and Behavioral Problems at Age 3 Years. Parenting, 12(4), 261-281.
Thompson, R., Tabone, J. K., Litrownik, A. J., Briggs, E. C., Hussey, J. M., English, D. J., & Dubowitz, H. (2011). Early adolescent risk behavior outcomes of childhood externalizing behavioral trajectories. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 31(2), 234-257.
Turner, P. J. (1993). Attachment to mother and behaviour with adults in preschool. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 11(1), 75-89.
Van Leeuwen, K. G., Fauchier, A., & Straus, M. A. (2012). Assessing Dimensions of Parental Discipline. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34(2), 216-231.
White, B. A., Jarrett, M. A., & Ollendick, T. H. (2013). Self-Regulation Deficits Explain the Link between Reactive Aggression and Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior Problems in Children. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 35(1), 1-9.
Williams, K. E., Ciarrochi, J., & Heaven, P. C. (2012). Inflexible parents, inflexible kids: A 6-year longitudinal study of parenting style and the development of psychological flexibility in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(8), 1053-1066.
Willoughby, M., Kupersmidt, J., Voegler-Lee, M., & Bryant, D. (2011). Contributions of hot and cool self-regulation to preschool disruptive behavior and academic achievement. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36(2), 162-180.
Wolfe, D. A., & McIsaac, C. (2011). Distinguishing between poor/dysfunctional parenting and child emotional maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35(10), 802-813.